Chinese cabbage

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Chinese Cabbage Links

• Oregon State University
• GPPIS (FAO)
• Plants for a Future - UK
• University of Florida
• Ontario Ministry of Agriculture
• Multilingual multiscript plant name database
• Purdue University, Indiana

Species: Brassica rapa L. cv. group Chinese cabbage

Family: Cruciferae

Crop status: Established

Varieties

Recommended varieties for Victoria are listed in Hayes et al. (1998). The wong bok cultivar yuki gave the best results for production in East Gippsland, with consistently high yield of marketable heads, a high level of tolerance to bolting and diseases, and long postharvest storage shown some tolerance to clubroot. Neither Treasure Island nor Kasumi varieties adapted well to cool and wet conditions (Anonymous 1997).

See Seedquest for a list of seed companies. 

Agronomic trials

Variety x season trials have been conducted in Tasmania, WA (WA Farmnote) and Victoria (see Agriculture Victoria). Vong Nguyen has looked at different varieties.

Figure 1: Australian production by State from 1991 to 1995 (Australian Bureau of Statistics).

Production

Thin profit margins in Chinese cabbage necessitate large operations. An enterprise of 40 ha is considered optimal, but will vary across Australia (Midmore 1997). The crop is suited to brassica producers who wish to diversify, as no further equipment is required (Tomkins and Daly 1998). It is produced in all states of Australia (Lee 1995). Victoria has around 323 ha planted (Hayes et al. 1998). Grew well without insecticide treatments in the Liverpool Plains, NSW, but there was poor head formation in most varieties (Hugh Allan in Daley 1998).

Soil: Chinese cabbage grows on a range of soils from light sandy loam to heavy loam, but prefers deep, well drained soils as it is susceptible to root rot. A well prepared raised bed will improve drainage and air circulation, thus reducing disease (Tomkins and Daly 1998). Germination rate is highest when 25% of soil particles are in the 0-10 mm range (Yanazawa and Fujii 1976). Soil is often cultivated when side dressings of fertiliser are applied, but care should be taken not to damage the roots, as this will cause root rot (Waters et al. 1992).

pH: Optimum is from 5.5 to 7.0. Apply lime if below 5.5 as the acidity will reduce availability of calcium and other nutrients, and enhance clubroot (Tomkins and Daly 1998). Where clubroot is a problem, adjust pH to 7.2 or more. High pH soils may require addition of boron, molybdenum and magnesium (Waters et al. 1992).

Temperature: Optimal temperature varies with growth stage, being 18-20ºC during early growth, 15-16ºC during heading and 10-13ºC during final head formation (Waters et al. 1992). However different varieties are available for different regions, from temperate to tropical (Tomkins and Daly 1998). It requires at least 15-16ºC to produce a well formed, quality head (Guttormsen and Moe 1985). Lower temperatures induce bolting while high temperatures promote production of narrow leaves. Heads formed at temperatures above 24ºC are often soft and bitter (Waters et al. 1992). It is important to grow at either high temperatures or short days from emergence until there are enough leaves for head formation. After this, subsequent low temperatures or long days after transplanting are not likely to induce bolting (Manrique 1993).

Sunlight: High levels of light induces broadening of the leaves and formation of heads, while shading induces sagging of the outer leaves (Waters et al. 1992).

Sowing: Sow 500-750 g/ha at 12-15 mm deep and thin after germination (Tomkins and Daly 1998). Seed is small at around 350 seeds/g (McKay 1996). It should be graded by size to synchronise germination and enable better flow through machinery (Waters et al. 1992).

Plant spacing: Total yield increases with plant density, but heads become smaller and disease may be more frequently observed. It is often planted with two offset rows per raised bed (Waters et al. 1992). A row spacing of around 35 cm will produce heads of about 1 kg, and 40 cm about 1.0 to 1.8 kg (Tomkins and Daly 1998). Regular spacing is important, as irregular spacing will result in greater variation in head size, and an overall lower yield (Yanazawa and Fujii 1976). Early maturing cultivars require less space than late ones (Waters et al. 1992).

Germination: Optimum temperature is 18-22ºC, at which germination will occur 2-3 days after sowing (Waters et al. 1992).

Transplanting: Seedlings are generally transplanted at 3-4 weeks (Tomkins and Daly 1998) or 4-6 leaves and a height of 75-100 mm (Waters et al. 1992). Growth in a nursery is initially more expensive but reduces seed, irrigation and thinning costs, and the producer has more control over adverse weather and pests/diseases (Tomkins and Daly 1998). It may also prevent growers from buying new machinery, as seeds are too small to be handled by some equipment (Hugh Allan in Daley 1998). Heat treating the seedlings may reduce bolting (Dimsey et al. 1998), as may the use of plastic tunnels for the first month after transplanting (Benoit and Ceustermans 1986). Containers should be at least 50 mm deep for continued seedling growth until transplanting. Reduce water rather than temperature to 'harden' seedlings before transplanting, and place the first pair of leaves at soil level. There appears to be little yield difference between plants transplanted with and without attached soil, but the latter have less transplanting shock and can resume growth more rapidly (Waters et al. 1992).

Weed control: The crop must be kept weed free during early growth to maximise yield, until the crop has reasonably good ground cover. Chinese cabbage appears to be more susceptible to postemergent herbicides than other cabbages, so it is preferable to plant into a weed free seed bed (Waters et al. 1992).

Figure 2: Australian planting of Chinese cabbage in 1990/91 by State (Waters et al. 1992).

Fertiliser: N and P are needed in large quantities in the first half of the growing period, and then large quantities of N and K are needed (Waters et al. 1992). Animal manure can be applied at least two weeks before planting, and/or a ratio of 5:5:5 at 1.5 t/ha immediately before planting. Regularly fertigate with N and K thereafter (Tomkins and Daly 1998). Yield is resistant to sub-optimal levels of P (Manrique 1993). Excessive N application has been linked to tip burn, gomasho and soft rots (Tomkins and Daly 1998). N works better when applied as a nitrate than as ammonium, and frequent spraying (3 times/week) with calcium nitrate is recommended. Ammoniums can cause calcium deficiency and restrict absorption of magnesium and potassium. Calcium deficiency affects the margins of fast growing leaves, causing wilting on outer and browning/necrosis on the inner leaves, leading to soft rot infections and core rotting. Boron deficiency causes the dorsal midribs of young inner leaves to become corky, brownish and to develop horizontal cracks, and the leaf to stop growing (Waters et al. 1992).

Irrigation: The plant is shallow rooted and does not tolerate water stress, but over watering will contribute to disease. Therefore, attention to irrigation is essential to maximise yield, particularly during head formation. Direct drilled crops require daily watering until seedlings emerge, and frequent watering is often necessary thereafter. Regular measurement of soil moisture using potentiometers is highly recommended (Tomkins and Daly 1998). Low moisture may cause boron deficiency (Waters et al. 1992).

Harvest: The plant matures more rapidly in warm weather and wong bok matures earlier than michihili types. Therefore there is considerable variation in time to harvest, from 2 to 4 months. Harvest when heads are well filled and firm but not hard, and before flower stalk initiation (Tomkins and Daly 1998). Pick by hand in the cool part of the day, removing outer leaves and trimming the butt so it is flush with the lowest leaf bases. Chinese cabbage is quite susceptible to handling damage (Tomkins and Daly 1998), though it may be suitable to semi-automated harvesting (Waters et al. 1992).

Yield: Japanese yields have steadily increased to 46.5 t/ha in 1996 (Figure 5). Taiwanese yields average 16.9 t/ha. Yields in WA are estimated at 64 t/ha (Pan 1995) but the National average in 1991 was 36.9 t/ha (Figure 2). Glasshouse yields of 8-11 kg/m2 (80-110 t/ha) have been recorded (Vogel et al. 1989).

Postharvest

Handling: Lining of storage containers with perforated polyethylene reduces wilting and trimming losses (Tan 1994). Picking cabbages at the end of May and storing them could improve the quality being exported (John Hine in Anonymous 1997).

Minimal processing: Cutting results in increased ethylene production during the first week of storage (Zheng 1998). Minimally processed, trimmed leaves can be dipped in citric acid solution to reduce black speck and browning, thus improving quality after storage (Byeong and Klieber 1997).

Storage temperature: Chinese cabbage should be kept at about 0-1°C through storage and, if possible, through all handling, transport and distribution. It will then retain quality for months, even without controlled-atmosphere storage (Bates 1997). Some cultivars are susceptible to chilling injury, causing browned midribs (Tomkins and Daly 1998). Chilling injury was not evident during 5 weeks of storage at 0°C (Byeong and Klieber 1997).

Relative humidity: At least 98% (Bates 1997). This can be achieved by storing in a plastic bag with the top folded over (Tomkins and Daly 1998).

Shelf life: Varies substantially with cultivar (Tomkins and Daly 1998), from 30 to 60 days in refrigerated conditions. This can be increased further by reducing carbon dioxide levels (Waters et al. 1992).

ACIAR Project Number 9416: Tim O'Hare (1 July 1998 - 31 June 2001). Extending the shelf life of leafy vegetables. Identify endogenous processes limiting shelf life, and investigate preharvest effects on postharvest shelf life. Australian research is being conducted at the University of Adelaide.

(A)

(B)

Figure 3: High and low prices (A) and throughput (B) of Chinese cabbage cartons at Flemington Markets during 1996 (green), 1997 (blue) and the first half of 1998 (red) (Flemington Market Reporting Service, NSW Agriculture).

Figure 4: Throughput of individual Chinese cabbage heads at Flemington Markets during 1996 (green) and 1997 (blue) (none were traded in the first half of 1998), recorded on a monthly basis (Flemington Market Reporting Service, NSW Agriculture).

Pests and diseases

A list of pests and diseases identified in Victoria is available in Chew and Morgan (1997). See also Tomkins and Daly (1998) and Hawaiian pests & diseases.

Raising beds can sometimes reduce the effect of bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora) (Fritz and Homma 1987). Fungal diseases may also be inhibited by relatively high calcium concentrations in plant tissue (Manrique 1993). Most diseases can be minimised by growing the correct cultivars in the correct season (Tomkins and Daly 1998), and by rotation among fields to break the buildup of soil borne pathogens (Waters et al. 1992).

Gomasho has been a problem in WA

Potential viruses are listed at Plant viruses online (Brunt et al. 1996).

Quality assessment

Chinese cabbage should be intact, fresh, sound, clean and full-bodied and have no (Tan 1994):

• signs of disease or mechanical damage
• dark brown vascular bundles or any form of spots
• freckles (or Gomasho) on the midribs as this usually becomes more severe after storage
• signs of shoot growth or visible bolters
• odour

Domestic market

There appears to be substantial opportunities to increase sales as a fresh and minimally processed product (Tomkins and Daly 1998). Heads of 0.75-1.0 kg are in greatest demand, but heads of 2-3 kg are required by Asian groups. Partially headed cabbage is acceptable when supplies are low (Waters et al. 1992). It is generally difficult to produce during August due to bolting, particularly for michihili types, but at other times it is readily available and cheap.

Export market

(click here for exchange rates).

Chinese cabbage is largely eaten fresh, but is also pickled to form Dong Cai in China, and Kim Ch'i in Korea. It can also be steamed, boiled, sauteed, braised and stir-fried (Vinning 1995). It was rated a priority Asian vegetable for developing an export market in fresh, fresh cut, and salted produce by workshop members reported in Lee (1996). Vinning (1995) considered specific varieties of Chinese cabbage to have a good potential for export. However, the fresh market is very volatile and generally not viable, with strong competition from other exporting countries and domestic industries of importing countries (Lee 1998). The quality of fresh Chinese produce has rapidly improved and has recently become highly competitive. There may be opportunities to increase sales as a minimally processed product (Tomkins and Daly 1998).

Australia exported 6 516 t in 1995/96 (Anonymous 1996 via the Access to Asia website), representing most of production (Figure 1). WA produces for export only, but eastern states produce for domestic and export (Midmore 1997). Tasmania has a confined export market of about 4-6 weeks around May, due to seasonal constraints.

Hong Kong has purchased 48% of Australian exports (Tomkins and Daly 1998). They have purchased fresh produce from China for much of the year, and then from Australia from April to September (Pan 1995). This window period may be shrinking due to rapid improvements in Chinese production. Australian produce represented 30% of their total imports in 1993. They purchased both Wong Bok and Michihili types (Pan 1995), but prefer heads up to 2 kg (Tomkins and Daly 1998).

Singapore has purchased 32% of Australian exports. They prefer 1.0 to 1.5 kg heads (Tomkins and Daly 1998). Stir-fry vegetable mixes containing Chinese cabbage may have good potential (Pan 1995).

Extremely important in Northern China, where it represents 80% of all vegetables consumed in winter and spring, and 25% year round (Chia 1981, via Vinning 1995). China has signed a deal to export 9 600 t to Japan and South Korea (Anonymous 1999).

Korea's largest horticultural crop, with an increasing volume grown under glasshouse conditions (Vinning 1995), currently at about 3.5 million t/year (Lee 1996). South Korea planted 48 000 ha in 1994 (FAO 1998). There may be a need for South Korea to import more materials for Kim Ch'i in both fresh and semi-processed forms. Warm summers in South Korea are unsuitable for Chinese Cabbage production and its prices in June to August are triple that of the rest of the year (Nguyen 1998). The market appears not to be economically viable for Australia (Lee 1998).

Figure 5: Japanese production of Chinese cabbage (MAFF 1999).

Japanese consumption is approximately 11 kg/person/year (Otsubo 1996) but is generally declining (JETRO 1995). Total production has declined steadily to 1.16 million t in 1996 (Figure 5), but there has been an increase in Spring production to satisfy the increasing demand for lightly pickled vegetables throughout the year (JETRO 1995). Approximately 6.5% of all production is organically grown, equating to 1.15 million t/year (JETRO 1994). Imports are low, probably because of problems with shelf life during transport. Prices have been highest in March/April and July to September when domestic production was lowest. Developments with modified atmospheres are still required (Pan 1995) but the fresh market appears to be economically non-viable for Australia (Lee 1998). Stir-fry vegetable mixes containing Chinese cabbage may have good potential (Pan 1995). About 180 000 t of cabbage was processed in 1991 (Vinning 1995). One of the leading Japanese pickles for Chinese cabbage is hakusai-zuke, which translates to 'cabbage pickled in salt' (Inden et al. 1997). Domestic production of Chinese cabbage pickled in soy sauce amounted to 93 305 t in 1995 (JETRO 1996). No salted cabbage has been imported to Japan, even though it appears feasible (Pan 1995). A tariff of 5% is applied to fresh edible brassicas, and 12 - 22.4% is applied to processed product (Vinning 1995).

Figure 6: Taiwanese imports of fresh or chilled Chinese cabbage (including Chinese chard) 1997. This material provided courtesy of the Asia Regional Agribusiness Project/Fintrac Inc. through the Market Asia web site at http://www.marketasia.org.

Taiwan has taken 12.5% of our exports (Tomkins and Daly 1998) though the market appears not to be economically viable for Australia (Lee 1998). Domestically, they have a range of varieties for sale. Price is very similar but volume varies, with 'Baobai' most common. A tariff of 25-32.5% exists for brassicas (Vinning 1995). Export opportunities may occur during the typhoon season of August and September. Stir-fry vegetable mixes containing Chinese cabbage may have good potential (Pan 1995). More data on Taiwanese imports is available at the MarketAg website.

One of the top five vegetables sold in Indonesia, and some has been sourced from Australia (Lee 1996).

Pacific islands have purchased Australian product (Waters et al. 1992).

References

Anonymous (1996). Victorian Horticulture Export Statistics 1995/96. Institute of Sustainable Irrigated Agriculture, Tatura

Anonymous (1997). Exploring varieties for niche markets. Good Fruit and Vegetables (April): 20-21.

Anonymous (1999). Asiawatch. Asia Fruit (January): 2.

Bates, J. (1997). Asian veg hit supermarket shelves. Good Fruit and Vegetables (April): 19.

Benoit, F. and N. Ceustermans (1986). Hastening a crop of Chinese cabbage (Brassica pekinensis Rubr.) susceptible to bolting by means of a direct temporary single or double plastic cover. [French]. Revue de L'Agriculture 39(5): 1111-1117.

Brunt, A.A., Crabtree, K., Dallwitz, M.J., Gibbs, A.J., Watson, L. and Zurcher, E.J. (eds.) (1996 onwards). `Plant Viruses Online: Descriptions and Lists from the VIDE Database. Version: 16th January 1997.'

Burt, J., Gilbey, D and Rutherford, P. (1993). Registered herbicides for vegetables. Agriculture Western Australia Farmnote

Byeong, S. K. and Klieber, A. (1997). Quality maintenance of minimally processed Chinese cabbage with low temperature and citric acid dip. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 75(1): 31-36.

Chew, M. and Morgan, W. (1997). List of identified pests and diseases affecting Asian vegetables. Access to Asian Vegetables. (2): 1.

Chia, W. L. (1981). The origin, evolution, taxonomy and hybridisation of Chinese cabbage. Ed: Talekar and Griggs.

Daley, P. (1998). Giant radish shows promise. The Land (26 Feb): 8.

Dimsey, R., Hayes, G., Top, M., Moore, S. and Morgan, W. (1998). Assessing the limitations to Chinese cabbage production in Victoria. Proc. Australian Society of Horticultural Science 14-17 October 1998. p. 31.

FAO (1998). FAOSTAT statistics database

Fritz, V. A. and Homma, S. (1987). The effect of raised beds, population densities, and planting date on the incidence of bacterial soft rot in Chinese cabbage. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 112: 41-44.

Guttormsen, G. and Moe, R. (1985). Effect of day and night temperature at different stages of growth on bolting in Chinese cabbage. Scienta Hortic. 25: 225-233.

Hayes, G., Dimsey, R., Top, M. and Moore, S. (1998). Suggested Chinese cabbage cultivars for late summer plantings in Victoria. Access to Asian Vegetables. (6): 1-2.

Inden, H., Kawano, Y., Kodama, Y. and Nakamura, K. (1997). Present status of vegetable pickling in Japan. Proceedings of the 7th ISHS symposium on vegetable quality. Seoul, Korea pp 29-35.

James, L., Nguyen, V. and Hickey, M. (1998). Suggested Chinese cabbage cultivars for late summer plantings in New South Wales. Access to Asian Vegetables. (6): 2.

JETRO (1994). Organic Vegetables: Your Market in Japan 94-100. Japan External Trade Organisation, Market Report. Japan External Trade Organisation, Market Report

JETRO (1995). Fresh Vegetables: Access to Japan's Import Market - Mini Report 1995 August. Japan External Trade Organisation, Market Report. Japan External Trade Organisation, Market Report.

JETRO (1996). Process Vegetables: Your Market in Japan-1996. Japan External Trade Organisation, Market Report.

Lee, B. (1995). Audit of the Australian Asian vegetables industry. RIRDC Research Paper No. 95/13. Canberra, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation 97 pp.

Lee , B. (1996). Assessment of economic benefits for Asian vegetables. RIRDC project CON-4A review meeting 14 November 1996.

Lee, B. (1998). Assessment of economic benefits for selected Asian vegetables. Access to Asian Foods (3): 2..

MAFF (1999). Abstract of statistics on agriculture, forestry and fisheries. Statistics and Information Department, The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan.

Manrique, L. A. (1993). Greenhouse crops - a review. Journal of Plant Nutrition 16(12): 2411-2477.

McKay, A. (1996). Chinese cabbage. Department of Agriculture Western Australia Bulletin No. 4197.

Midmore, D. (1997). Bringing Asian vegetables into one basket. Good Fruit and Vegetables (Nov): 66-67.

Nguyen, V. Q. (1992). Growing Asian vegetables. Agfact, NSW Agriculture H8.1.37.

Nguyen, V. Q. (1998). Report on the study tour to Japan on pickling of Asian vegetables and attendance at an international symposium on vegetable quality in Seoul, Korea 1997. Gosford, Horticultural Research and Advisory Station. 96 pp.

Otsubo, M. (1996). Asian vegetables into Japan: export potential, opportunities and myths. In: Proceedings of an Asian Food Industry Conference (Ed; Lee, B. and Prinsley, R.). RIRDC Research Paper No. 96/9: 22-28.

Pan, C. (1995). Market opportunities for fresh and processed Asian vegetables. RIRDC Research Paper No. 95/14. Canberra, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation 117 pp.

Tan, S. C. (1994). Post-harvest handling of Brassica vegetables. Department of Agriculture Western Australia Farmnote.

Tomkins, B. and Daly, P. (1998). Chinese cabbage. The New Rural Industries. Ed.: K. W. Hyde. Canberra, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation: 166-171.

Vinning, G. (1995). Market Compendium of Asian Vegetables. RIRDC Research Paper No. 95/12. Canberra, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation 386 pp.

Vogel, G., Lanckow, J. and Kiffner, W. (1989). Results on growth and yield of Chinese cabbage (Brassica pekinensis (Lour.) Rupr.) in relation to temperature in the heated greenhouse. [German]. Archiv fur Gartenbau 37(8): 495-513.

Waters, C. T., Morgan, W. C. and McGeary, D. J. (1992). How to identify, grow and use oriental vegetables. Melbourne, Agmedia 128 pp.

Yanazawa, T. and Fujii, S. (1976). Studies on the allowable range of accuracy in field seeding parameters for Daikon radish and Chinese cabbage. Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 45(2): 143-152.

Zheng, S. F. (1998). Preliminary study of the effects of cutting on quality of Chinese cabbage. Acta Horticulturae No(467): 343-348.